The Journal of School Nursing2025, Vol. 41(4) 445–456© The Author(s) 2023Article reuse guidelines:sagepub.com/journals-permissionsDOI: 10.1177/10598405231193361journals.sagepub.com/home/jsn
Abstract
Providing complex care for students requires an informed school nurse workforce. However, school nurses, many of whom work independently, may not know where to find necessary information. This study seeks to understand the information needs of school nurses by conducting a needs assessment survey within the state of Illinois. A survey was disseminated through three statewide professional listservs to determine the types of care-related questions school nurses ask as part of their regular duties and which resources they use to answer those questions. School nurses’ information needs vary widely, and they rely on numerous sources to answer clinical questions. They are responsible for the well-being of hundreds to thousands of children. While they are comfortable searching for information, they are motivated to further develop research skills.
Keywords
information literacy, school nurse education, school nurse knowledge/perceptions/self-efficacy, continuing education, evidence-based practice
School nurses are responsible for the health and welfare of children while at school. This role entails first aid, health promotion, disease prevention, and caring for students with chronic conditions (Yonkaitis, 2018). For some students, a school nurse may be the only healthcare practitioner with whom they have regular contact, leading some to call schools a hidden healthcare system (Lear, 2007). Compounding the issue, almost 20% (14 million) of children and youth in the United States have special healthcare needs (Maternal and Child Health Bureau, 2022). Students with special healthcare needs are more likely to struggle academically and need school nurse case management (NASN, 2021). Providing complex care for these students requires an informed school nurse workforce. Evidence-based practice (EBP) is central to quality school nursing care and is embedded in the principles, concepts, and competencies of the National Association of School Nurses’ (NASN) School Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice (2022), as well as the Framework for twenty-first Century School Nursing Practice (2016). As defined by NASN (2022, p. 101), EBP is “a problem-solving approach to health care using healthcare provider expertise, the best scientific evidence, and the consumer’s values and preference to determine and guide the plan of care”.
Research on the information needs of nurses focuses primarily on those employed by hospitals and healthcare systems. In contrast, there is a paucity of research related to the types of information needed and sought by nurses working in the school setting. A needs assessment encourages institutions to critically and systematically identify gaps in performance and address them according to priority (OESE, 2020). By applying the needs assessment model, an intervention can be planned according to the unique needs of those most affected. The aim of this study is to understand the information needs of school nurses in order to develop targeted interventions. The authors believe that the majority of clinical questions that arise in a school setting can be answered by a small number of resources, but that school nurses may not be aware of which ones are evidence-based or where to go for assistance.
The development of strong information searching skills is a foundation of EBP across the health sciences; the integration of these skills into curricula has for many years been a focus of academic health sciences librarians (Albarqouni et al., 2018; Hirt et al., 2020; Munn & Small, 2017; Waltz et al., 2020). Librarians have long worked with health science programs, hospitals, and departments of public health to increase knowledge of best practice when it comes to honing these skills (Medical Library Association, 2023). A 2020 nationwide nursing workforce survey determined that approximately 22% of school nurses (RNs) are ADNs, 57% are BSNs, 15% have Master’s Degrees, and less than 1% are doctorally prepared. Approximately 70% of school nurses are older than 40 years of age (Smiley et al., 2021).
Concepts of EBP were rarely covered in nursing curricula before 2000 (Maughan & Yonkaitis, 2017). Schweikhard (2016) found that approximately 70% of school nurses surveyed stated that they were satisfied with their ability to search for health information, yet only 30% agreed that they were aware of current research related to school nursing practice. In more recent years, school nurses may have learned the basics of searching for evidence-based clinical information during their education but may lack the extra step of its application to practice (Schweikhard, 2016).
Significant factors impact a school nurse’s ability to access, appraise, synthesize, and implement EBP. Such factors include educational preparation, professional support, computer literacy, adequate access to librarian services and scientific databases, adequate support from administration, and lack of time and funding (Anderson & Enge, 2012; Maughan & Yonkaitis, 2017). These constraints lead to internet search engines being used over health sciences databases (Schweikhard, 2016).
These issues are compounded by school nurse workloads. Most school nurses work as the only nurse in their districts or schools, cover more than one school building, and spend most of their time delivering direct care. They may report to administrators and school boards who have no health science understanding. Though registered nurses are required to do professional development to maintain licensure, school nurses report that just over 2% of their workday is spent on professional development (Willgerodt et al., 2018). Additionally, the expectation that required professional development activities be conducted during personal time has the potential to breed resentment and contribute to burnout (Coventry et al., 2015). Thankfully, school nurses are resourceful and declare interest in attending workshops to improve their skills (Vela, 2017).
In Illinois, there are tiers of registered nurses (RNs) in schools: certified school nurses and nurses working in schools. Certified school nurses hold a Professional Educator License with an endorsement in school nursing (PEL-School Nurse) issued by the Illinois State Board of Education (n.d). To obtain a PEL-School Nurse, baccalaureate-prepared nurses complete a school nurse certification program from an accredited institution of higher education and pass the state school nurse content exam. The second tier is RNs with either Associate degrees (ADNs) or Bachelor of Science degrees (BSNs) or higher who work in schools providing direct care to students but do not have a PEL-School Nurse credential. Licensed practical nurses also care for students under RN supervision according to the stipulations of the Illinois Nurse Practice Act (2018).
Previous research on the information needs of school nurses was done by Schweikhard in a metropolitan area in Oklahoma (2016) and adapted by Vela for the rural portion of Washington (2018). We built a survey in Qualtrics directly adapted from Schweikhard’s original survey with permission. The survey began with an introduction to the study describing its purpose and expectations. It indicated that participation was voluntary, and no penalty would be incurred for withdrawals. Informed consent was confirmed prior to beginning the survey itself. The survey was open across 8 weeks during Fall 2022. The survey contained 16 items and took an estimated fifteen minutes to complete.
First, participants were asked how often they search for different types of information and which sources were used. Next, they described any school health initiatives in which they are involved. Lastly, they were asked a series of demographic questions including the type of school at which they currently practice, the number of students for whom they are responsible, years of experience, education, and membership in professional associations. The first 25 participants were given a $25 gift card and the first 100 eligible were entered into a pool to win a $50, $75, or $100 gift card. Participants were provided with a link at the end of the survey should they wish to be involved in any future studies. The research protocol met the criteria for exemption and was approved by the University of Illinois Chicago Institutional Review Board.
We distributed the survey to school nurses in our state, disseminating it through the Illinois Association of School Nurses, the Illinois Department of Public Health Certified School Nurse listserv, and Illinois School Health Technical Assistance and Training listservs and by asking participants to declare themselves as members thereof within the survey itself. Participants were deemed eligible if currently practicing nursing within a school (PreK or K-12+) in the state. There are 852 public school districts in Illinois that serve 1,887,316 children and with an average school size of 480 students (Illinois State Board of Education, 2021). The number of nurses working in Illinois schools is not directly known at this time.
The data was analyzed using Qualtrics and Excel. Descriptive statistics were used to examine means, medians, frequencies, and percentages. Responses to open-ended questions were examined independently by the authors using inductive content analysis to identify keywords and phrases that represent themes across participants (Clarke & Braun, 2013). An inductive approach allowed the authors to remain open to additional evaluation criteria and opinions. The authors met to discuss any differences and reach a consensus. The survey can be found in Appendix A.
Of the 415 participants who took the survey, 405 completed at least 98% of the survey and were included in the data analysis. All respondents held a nursing license in Illinois.
The demographics of the survey respondents are displayed in Table 1. The majority of respondents were Illinois certified school nurses (PEL-School Nurses) (n = 213, 54%) followed by non-certified BSNs (n = 142, 36%), and non-certified ADNs (n = 43, 11%). This is further reflected in highest educational level with most being bachelor’s-prepared (n = 239, 60%), several having either a master’s degree in either nursing (MSN) (n = 72 or 18%) or education (MEd) (n = 30 or 7%), and a minority having associate degrees in nursing (n = 44, 11%). The least number of respondents fell to the extremes of doctoral degrees (n = 8 or 2%) or licensed practical nurses, who work under the supervision of RNs (n = 8 or 2%).
A large majority of respondents (82%, n = 329) have worked in nursing for over 10 years, 12% (n = 50) have worked between 5 and 9 years, 4% (n = 16) have worked 3 or 4 years (n = 16, 4%), and less than 2% (n = 8) have a worked for 2 years or less. Participants were additionally asked how many years they had of nursing experience in schools. The majority responded with 10 or more years of experience (n = 153, 38%), followed by 5 to 9 years (n = 127, 32%), 3 to 4 years (n = 58, 14%). and less than 2years(n= 65, 16%)’. It was further noted that many had memberships to professional organizations with the most popular being NASN (57%) followed by Illinois Association of School Nurses (IASN) (52%). This discrepancy indicated that some school nurses did not realize the IASN is an affiliate of NASN, meaning that membership in IASN is automatic upon joining NASN. A few belonged to the American Public Health Association and Association of Public Health Nurses (APHA, 2% and APHN, 0.5%).
To better understand the working environment, participants were asked about the types of schools in which they worked. The majority of nurses indicated they worked in the suburbs (n = 251, 64%) followed by urban (n = 81, 21%), and the least in rural districts (n = 63, 12%). Since many nurses are responsible for more than one school, the option was given to check as many boxes as applied. Approximately half (n = 196, 49%) worked in elementary schools, just over a third in high schools (n = 142, 35%), a third in middle schools (n = 133, 33%), and several in other environments such as preschool (n = 148, 37%) and transition (n = 47, 12%). Transition in this case was selfidentified via short answers as students in post-high school, transition, or high school for ages up to 22 with disabilities or special needs.
Participants were asked for the number of students they were responsible for including either numbers for a single school, more than one school, or district-wide numbers for nurses in special education, administrative, or supervisory roles. A majority of participants reported that they were responsible for either fewer than 500 (32%) or between 500 and 999 (29%) students. Thirteen respondents (3%) were responsible for 5,000 or more students; the highest number reported was 17,000 students. Twenty participants did not answer this question (Figure 1).
Participants were then asked to estimate the number of those students who had special healthcare needs (Figure 2). The majority of those who answered (230 of 372) stated less than ten percent of their caseload consisted of students who required more complex care. It should be noted that Illinois has a number of schools that exclusively serve students with special needs; thirteen respondents listed all their students as having special healthcare needs.
The first section of the survey asked nurses about the types of clinical information they searched for and how often. A Likert scale was used to determine frequency (never = 0, less than once a month = 1, once a month = 2, more than once a month = 3, once a week = 4, and more than once a week = 5). The results are shown in Figure 3. By far, the most searched-for information was health conditions and illnesses with 46% answering that they searched for such information more than once a week (mean = 4.04, median = 4). This was followed by symptoms (mean = 3.51, median = 4), treatments (mean = 3.33, median = 3), and physicians or health facilities (mean = 2.86, median = 3). Participants were given the chance to list any other types of information they searched for that was not listed in the previous question. Responses included: support for mental health services both in general and for Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for special education, 504 plans for diverse learners, resources for families and communities, ideas for training, COVID-19 guidelines, and office supplies specific to nursing.
The next survey section inquired about sources used to answer their clinical queries (Figure 4). The most frequent source of information cited was search engines (mean = 4.65, median = 5), followed by other nurses (mean = 3.69, median = 4), government or district websites (mean = 3.64, median = 4), and school nurse association sites either state or national (mean = 2.7, median = 3). An overwhelming majority stated they did not consult a library or librarian with 95% indicating never or less than once a month. It was also rare for scholarly and professional works such as journals and textbooks to be consulted, with 58% and 68% respectively stating they used such resources less than monthly or never. The top five sites used for information were the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), Mayo Clinic, the Illinois Department of Public Health, NASN, and the Illinois State Board of Education. Electronic database use was low with only 20% using them more than once a month. It was indicated that access was minimal with nearly 80% stating they did not have access to paid resources and 9% were unsure whether they did or not. Those who did have access listed those databases to which they had access: the Cumulated Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PubMed, and the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC). Of those who responded, the majority noted that they were current university students and had access via their educational institution libraries rather than through their school districts. The number of ADN nurses who were unsure of whether they had access was higher (18%) than either BSN-prepared (9%) or advanced degreed peers (7%).
The responses to questions were further divided by level of education. Licensed practical nurses were not included in the data analysis due to low representation on the survey. The use of search engines and social media was similar between ADN, BSN, and nurses with graduate degrees. The BSNs were more likely than ADNs to consult government or district sites. The BSNs were also more likely than either ADN or graduate-prepared nurses to consult health websites such as WebMD or Healthline. Professional association sites, i.e., IASN and NASN, were favored more by graduate-prepared nurses. Furthermore, the graduateprepared nurses used databases more often, were more likely to consult a librarian, and had a better awareness of database access. Figure 5 highlights the most frequently used resources by each educational level.
Participants were next asked about their perceptions regarding searching ability (Figure 5). This was measured with a Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1, somewhat disagree = 2, neither agree nor disagree = 3, somewhat agree = 4, and strongly agree = 5). Most school nurses stated that they were aware of current research in the field (mean = 3.78, median = 4), confident of their skill in searching for information required to perform their duties (mean = 3.76 median = 4), had convenient access to information (mean = 3.5, median = 4), and access to the internet (mean = 4.9, median = 5). There was a strong desire for self-improvement in searching skills with many indicating an interest in workshops, classes, or online modules on information access (mean = 4.23, median = 5) (Figure 6).
School nurses are often involved in school health initiatives as part of their regular duties. Responses regarding the nature of these initiatives ranged from basic to complex and gave an idea of the types of information required to lead such endeavors. Note that a distinction was not made between activities mandated by the state and those initiated by the school nurses. Mandated activities include vision and hearing screenings; keeping records of physical and dental exams, and immunizations; Section 504 plans; and concussion screening for schools with interscholastic sports. PEL-School nurses are also required to be involved in IEPs for students with special healthcare needs. While schools are required to have a Wellness Plan, it is not a requirement for school nurses to be involved. Table 2 lists the top 10 initiatives from survey responses in order of frequency. Topics also mentioned included flu clinics, sexually transmitted infection awareness/prevention, COVID-19 screenings, nutrition education, diagnosis-specific initiatives such as diabetes education, asthma management, and concussion screenings as well as involvement in national programs such as Stop the Bleed, Say Boo! To the Flu, Action for Healthy Kids, and Young Hearts among others.
The results of this study provide useful information for those seeking to learn more about the information needs of school nurses within a populous state. Despite the difference in years and location, our findings were quite similar to Schweikhard’s, 2016 study surveying school nurses in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The demographics were similar in their distribution regarding the level of schools overseen and years of practice. Most nurses had practiced for over a decade, indicating an aging workforce and one that may have received little training in searching online resources during their initial nursing education (Yonkaitis, 2018). However, there were also differences. Several were related to the passage of time such as increased use of websites and social media, as well as better internet accessibility. Survey participants sought information on policies and laws more often and treatments slightly less. They used government and organization sites more and while most still did not seek out librarians; a surprising 21% indicated they consulted one rarely (less than monthly) as opposed to never. Like their counterparts in Tulsa, Illinois participating school nurses felt confident in their knowledge of current practices, but nevertheless were greatly interested in more professional development to further their knowledge of accessing health information.
The number of students for whom school nurses in Illinois were responsible was higher than anticipated. Perhaps, this correlates with the fact that school districts in Illinois are not mandated to have a nurse in every school every day (Searing & Guenette, 2016). Although a validated instrument for measuring school nurse workload does not yet exist (Jameson et al., 2022), researchers agree that workload has a direct impact on student outcomes (Daughtry & Engelke, 2018; Jameson & Bowen, 2020), as well as nurse stress and burnout.
The school workforce is generally experienced in nursing skills but may be lacking in training on evidence-based practice and the best methods for seeking health information using electronic resources (Adams, 2009; Anderson & Enge, 2012; Dee & Stanley, 2005; Schweikhard, 2016). In addition, a tendency to use either the internet or peers as resources and a lack of access to licensed electronic databases underscores the importance of being able to find and assess publicly available health information. Some participants noted they had access to electronic databases such as PubMed and CINAHL, but they also stated it was due to current enrollment in higher education. It was not clear whether participants understood that PubMed is a publicly searchable database that provides abstracts of biomedical literature and some full-text content (National Library of Medicine, 2022). ERIC, an educational database sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences at the U.S. Department of Education is free to the public including fulltext articles (ERIC, 2023). This discrepancy reflects a lack of awareness rather than access.
While the COVID-19 pandemic was not specifically addressed within the survey itself, participants made note of its impact in comments related to workload and types of information sought. This survey took place in the fall of 2022 when the COVID-19 precautions in schools were winding down; however, districts varied in their protocols and timing of lessening restrictions.
Throughout the pandemic, school nurses found themselves responsible for intensive efforts to educate their schools on current guidelines (Lowe et al., 2023).
The survey was anonymous; therefore, it is not known which counties are represented and which are not. Nurses were not asked about the structure of school nurses within districts, such as whether the respondent worked in a health office setting or in an indirect care role such as special education nurse, administrator, or educator. Nurses were asked whether they used peers as a resource, but the specialty of such peers (outpatient, fellow school nurse, public health nurse, etc.) was not specified in the query. Given the difficulty of hiring and retaining school nurses post-COVID, it is possible some districts have adjusted requirements for staffing. The survey did not ask whether schools had a library or if school nurses were permitted to use its resources. Furthermore, upon gathering data about access to licensed resources, the National Center for Education Statistics did not delineate whether they were available to students, educators, or staff such as school nurses. If nurses do have access, they may be unaware of what the district provides (Kachel & Lance, 2021; National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). Self-selection might also have affected answers. As the compensation was minimal, nurses with an interest in research and access to resources may have been overrepresented and our findings overestimate the favorable ratings.
This is the first of a two-part assessment to understand the information needs of school nurses. The second step is to share the results of the survey with those participants who indicated an interest in follow-up and conduct further one-on-one interviews about their information needs. The findings from those interviews coupled with the results of this study should paint a clear picture of this unique population’s needs.
With that knowledge, a team of health science librarians plan to design an open-access, self-paced course for continuing education credit offering to improve the acumen of school nurses to access evidence-based clinical information. The course will start in-state for the initial pilot; then if successful, be promoted for national use. The purpose of the course will be to provide clarity on determining the credibility of online resources and to identify the best methods for searching for common topics within the field. This approach has found ongoing and recent success teaching EBP (Jones et al., 2023). Professional development to address the information needs of school nurses will be designed to be low-cost and accessible.
The development of robust training will take time; in the interim, the authors suggest school nurses use the freely available content in PubMed and ERIC. Additionally, school nurses should avail themselves of resources offered by relevant websites that provide evidence-based information, such as offered by the U.S. government (e.g., CDC, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], U.S. Department of Health and Human Services), state health departments and departments of education, reputable healthcare institutions (e.g., university healthcare centers, children’s hospitals), health condition specific non-profit organizations (e.g., Epilepsy Foundation, Food Allergy Research and Education [FARE]), American Lung Association [ALA], and professional nursing and medical associations (e.g., NASN or state affiliates, American Academy of Pediatrics).
School nurses need evidence-based information to provide quality services to their students with complex healthcare needs as well as addressing the public health needs of their school communities, as was demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic. The barriers to finding, synthesizing, and applying relevant and scientifically sound information to practice include heavy workloads and limited time, lack of awareness of or access to evidence-based information, and limited searching skills. This may be especially true in under-resourced or historically marginalized communities.
As healthcare constantly evolves, school nurses are increasingly challenged to keep up with changes in practice and policy. When school nurses are not aware of medical advances and current best practices, the health and safety of students and school community are put at risk. This study demonstrates that school nurses want to develop more confidence in efficiently locating reliable, relevant, accurate, and freely available health information.
The first set of questions will ask how often you search for different types of health information as part of your school nursing responsibilities.
1) How often do you search for information on health conditions, illness, and/or injuries?
Scale: never, less than once a month, once a month, more than once a month, once a week, more than once aweek
a) Health conditions/illnesses/injuries
b) Symptoms
c) Treatments
d) Prescriptions/medications
e) Immunization schedules
f) Physicians/health facilities
g) State health policies/laws
h) School or education policies/laws
i) Clinical guidelines
2) Please identify any other type(s) of information you frequently search for _________.
The following questions will ask how often you use different resources as part of your school nursing responsibilities.
3) How often do you consult each of the following sources for information as part of your school nursing responsibilities?
Scale: never, less than once a month, once a month, more than once a month, once a week, more than once a week
a) Search engines (Google, Bing, etc.)
b) Health websites
c) Social media sites or apps
d) National or Association of School Nurses website
e) Government and district websites (local, state, federal; CDC, public health department)
f) Nursing/medical textbooks
g) Nursing/medical journals or magazines
h) Databases (MEDLINE, CINAHL)
i) Fellow nurses
j) Libraries/librarians
4) Please identify any other source(s) you frequently consult for information _______
The next set of questions will ask you to indicate your perceptions regarding the following statements as they pertain to your current position and school environment.
5) Do you have access to paid resources such as CINAHL, ERIC, or PsycInfo? Please list______
6) Please indicate your perceptions regarding the following statements as they pertain to your current position and school environment.
Scale: strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree
a) I am satisfied with my ability to search for information necessary to perform my school nursing responsibilities.
b) I have convenient access to information sources needed to perform my school nursing responsibilities.
c) I am aware of current research related to school nursing practices.
d) I would be interested in attending a class, workshop, or online module regarding access to health information.
e) I have convenient access to the internet while at school.
7) In the space below, please describe any school health initiatives (such as health awareness campaigns, screenings, or education) in which you are involved _____________
Lastly, we would like to gather some information about your education and your students.
8) Please indicate you highest level of preparation to practice nursing in schools
I am a non-certified ADN-RN (Associate degree)
I am a non-certified BSN-RN (Bachelors degree)
I have a Professional Educator License - Certified School Nurse (PEL-CSN)
9) What is your highest level of education?
Licensed practical nurse
Associate
Bachelors in nursing
Masters in nursing
Masters in education
Doctoral
10) How many years of experience do you have as a nurse? Select one:
a) 0–2
b) 3–4
c) 5–9
d) 10 or more
11) How many years of experience do you have as a school nurse? Select one:
12) Please select the organizations in which you are a member.
a) National Association of School Nurses
b) Association of School Nurses
c) American Public Health Association
d) Association of Public Health Nurses
e) I am not a member of any of these.
13) Select the appropriate level of school that you oversee (choose all that apply):
a) Early childhood (ages 3–5 years)
b) Elementary (k-5)
c) Middle school (6–8)
d) *Combined (k-8)
e) High school (9–12)
f) *Other, describe
14) How would you describe your school district?
a) Rural
b) Suburban
c) Urban
15) Estimate the number of students for which you are responsible _______.
16) Estimate the number of students with special healthcare needs for which you are responsible _______.
The authors would like to thank all the school nurses who participated and the colleagues who so kindly reviewed the manuscript prior to submission.
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Annie “Nicky” Nickum https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3643-9026
Robin Shannon https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0036-5264
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Annie “Nicky” Nickum, Information Services and Research, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
Rosie Hanneke, Information Services and Research, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
Robin Shannon, Population Health Nursing Science Department, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
1 Information Services and Research, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
2 Population Health Nursing Science Department, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Corresponding Author:Annie “Nicky” Nickum, Information Services and Research, University of Illinois Chicago, 1750 W Polk St., Chicago, IL, 60612, USA.Email: anicku2@uic.edu
